Librarian for Geospatial Systems and Data
Introduction to Critical Cartography
Critical Cartography is an interdisciplinary approach that explores map-making and maps not just as neutral representations of space, place, and time, but as powerful tools that embed social structures, power dynamics and cultural contexts. It stands at the intersection of geography, critical theory, and social sciences, offering a unique lens to analyze spatial representations.
Critical cartography plays a pivotal role in unveiling hidden narratives, exposing biases, and empowering marginalized communities. It has practical applications in fields such as urban planning, environmental justice, and social activism. Through this guide, discover resources to learn how critical cartography contributes to a deeper understanding of the world around us through journals, articles, books, and other media.
Ethics in Cartography
Cartography, or map-making, has been around for over 5,000 years. With this long history, it is essential to consider the ethical implications of the decisions made during the mapping processes, such as symbology and design choices, information that is preset or omitted, or where data was sourced from in modern-day map making.
Representation and Bias
The choices made by cartographers about what to include—and what to exclude—can reflect and reinforce social, political, and cultural biases. Historically, many maps omitted entire populations, misrepresented cultural boundaries, or favored the perspectives of colonial powers. For example, maps from the Age of Exploration often depicted European discoveries prominently while neglecting or inaccurately representing indigenous territories and communities. Such maps not only misled viewers about the true nature of these lands but also served to legitimize colonial claims and reinforce Eurocentric worldviews.
Accountability
Accountability in cartography means being aware of the power dynamics and potential impacts of the maps we create. Cartographers and GIS professionals have a responsibility to consider the ethical implications of their work and to strive for fairness, accuracy, and inclusivity. This involves acknowledging mistakes, correcting biases, and being transparent about data sources, methodologies, and potential limitations.
Learn more about the "Right MAP Making Manifesto" that highlights the principles of reverence, generosity, commitment, deep listening, and on belonging.
Map Literacy
To interpret maps critically, consider the following questions:
- What are the map’s purpose and intended audience? Understanding why a map was created and for whom can provide insight into its design choices and potential biases.
- What data sources are used, and how are they represented? Examine the reliability of data sources and how different types of data are visualized. Consider what might be missing or underrepresented.
- What assumptions underlie the map’s design? Reflect on the choices made regarding scale, symbols, colors, and boundaries. How might these choices influence the viewer's perception?
More Resources for Reading Maps
Learn How to Read a Map: Created by Caitlin Dempsey on GeoGraphyRealm blog. Provides examples of reading maps by understanding essential details likes distance, direction, natural and man-made feature, topographic elements, and more.
How to Read a Topo Map: Created by REI. Details how to read contour lines, map scales, and more.
Reading and interpreting visual resources in Geography: Created by the Department of Education for the State Government of Victoria, Australia. Provides examples of interpretating maps focusing on the features of a map by using the acronym BOLTSS (border, orientation, legend, title, scale, and source).
- Color: The choice of color can convey emotions and imply significance. For example, red might be used to signify danger or urgency, while blue might suggest calmness or neutrality. Color contrast can also highlight or diminish the visibility of certain areas.
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Symbols and Icons: The symbols used on a map can carry meaning beyond their literal representation. For instance, using a large, bold icon to represent a city suggests importance or dominance, while smaller or faded icons might imply lesser significance.
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Visual Hierarchy: The way elements are arranged on a map can create a sense of importance or focus. By emphasizing certain features (such as cities, roads, or natural landmarks) over others, cartographers can influence what viewers perceive as most significant.
- Large-Scale Maps: These maps (e.g., 1:10,000) show a smaller area in greater detail. They are useful for local planning or navigation but may not provide broader contextual information.
- Small-Scale Maps: These maps (e.g., 1:1,000,000) cover larger areas but with less detail. While they are useful for understanding general geographic patterns or regional overviews, they may oversimplify complex local information.
- Political Boundaries: Often depicted as solid lines, these boundaries can imply a sense of permanence and legitimacy. However, many political boundaries are the result of historical conflicts or negotiations and may not reflect current realities on the ground.
- Natural Boundaries: Features like rivers, mountains, or forests are often used as natural boundaries. While these can be more intuitive, they may also change over time due to natural processes, impacting the areas they define.
- For Spatial Analysis: The boundary effect, or boundary problem, occurs when the limits of a study area or the boundaries used in spatial analysis influence the results of that analysis.
- Edge Effects: When analyzing spatial data, features located near the edges of the study area may appear incomplete or may interact with features outside the boundary that are not included in the analysis. This can lead to inaccuracies, particularly in analyses involving spatial autocorrelation or patterns that extend beyond the map's edge.
- Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP): This problem arises when spatial data is aggregated into different zones or units (like census tracts, postal codes, or political boundaries). The size and shape of these units can significantly affect statistical results, such as density calculations or spatial correlations, leading to different conclusions depending on the aggregation method used.
- Artificial Boundaries: Boundaries drawn for administrative or political reasons may not align with natural or meaningful spatial divisions. For example, a city boundary might split a neighborhood or an ecological zone in ways that are not relevant to the spatial phenomenon being studied.
- Spatial Autocorrelation: The boundary effect can distort measurements of spatial autocorrelation, which is the degree to which nearby locations are similar or dissimilar in terms of a particular variable. If data outside the boundary are excluded, it may create artificial patterns of clustering or dispersion.
- Data Completeness: Boundaries can limit the extent of data collected and analyzed. Features near the boundary may be cut off, leading to incomplete datasets that can bias results.
Glossary of Terms
Critical Cartography: set of mapping practices and methods of analysis grounded in critical theory, specifically the thesis that maps reflect and perpetuate relations of power, typically in favor of a society's dominant group.
Counter-Mapping: the practice of creating alternative maps or using mapping techniques to challenge and subvert mainstream or authoritative representations of space. It is often associated with social and environmental justice movements, empowering marginalized communities to assert their own narratives and spatial realities.
Participatory GIS (PGIS): an approach that involves involving local communities and stakeholders in the process of creating, analyzing, and interpreting geographic information. It emphasizes collaboration, community engagement, and the inclusion of local knowledge in GIS projects.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): tools that support the collection, display, and analysis of spatial information.
